Rethinking Culture in Disaster Risk Reduction: The Conceptualisation of an Iceberg-Informed Input-Process-Output(IPO) Model.

This study addresses the critical yet often overlooked role of culture in disaster risk reduction (DRR) by developing a novel Input-Process-Output (IPO) conceptual model. Grounded in a conceptual development methodology that emphasises theory synthesis and model building, the research integrates the Iceberg Model of Culture, the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM), the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB), the emic–etic approach, and Cultural Schema Theory (CST) to capture the complex, reciprocal interaction between culture and disasters. The model frames culture not as a static background variable but as a dynamic factor that both shapes and is shaped by disaster. Moving beyond traditional one-size-fits-all approaches, the IPO model offers a structured framework for integrating and harnessing cultural heterogeneity into DRR strategies, and emphasising the ongoing co-creation and co-refinement of community-driven resilience and adaptive, context-specific interventions. The model incorporates iterative feedback loops, allowing continuous refinement of disaster strategies responding
to dynamically changing cultural contexts. This conceptual model lays the groundwork for empirical validation and practical application in diverse socio-cultural settings. Future research employing participatory and mixed methods is proposed to enhance the model’s robustness and usability, aiming to transform it into a practical decision-making tool for culturally sensitive disaster governance.