Problematic smartphone use among young adults: The role of motives

Abstract

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) broadly refers to a loss of control over smartphone use that results in harm or impairment. It is common, particularly among young adults. PSU is often conceptualised as akin to a behavioural addiction, but one prominent theoretical framework of PSU, the pathway model, distinguishes between addictive, antisocial, and risky patterns of smartphone use. These patterns of PSU are thought to be differentially driven by three aetiological pathways—the excessive reassurance, impulsive, and extraversion pathways—each of which is characterised by distinct psychological vulnerabilities. While the pathway model synthesises how a range of psychological vulnerabilities influence PSU, it does not explicitly identify mechanistic variables that may influence these pathways. Theory and research suggest that motives may represent key mechanistic variables, explaining how psychological vulnerabilities influence PSU. Thus, the overarching aim of this thesis was to develop and test a motivational model of PSU that built on the pathway model by explicitly mapping the motivational mechanisms that may influence distinct patterns of PSU. This was achieved over five studies which employed a sequential mixed-methods design.
Study One systematically reviewed the literature to determine what was (and was not) known about the association of motives with PSU. Seven broad categories of smartphone use motives were identified, most of which were generally positively associated with PSU. Crucially, key knowledge gaps were identified. First, existing smartphone use motives measures were highly heterogeneous, making it difficult to compare findings across studies and draw conclusions about which motives were most robustly associated with PSU. Second, existing smartphone use motives measures were generally developed with a confirmatory approach. That is, they adapted items directly from prior measures originally designed to assess motives for a range of other behaviours, such as internet, social media, and alcohol use. This may have resulted in new or at least nuanced motives specific to smartphone use being missed. Third, no study had investigated whether motives were differentially related to addictive, antisocial, and risky PSU. Finally, there have been limited studies that examined whether psychological vulnerabilities are associated with PSU via motives, most of which have focused on the excessive reassurance pathway only.
Noting the need for qualitative research that explores (potentially unique) motives for smartphone use, Study Two was a qualitative focus group study. The study explored motives for smartphone use and identified those that may influence PSU among young adults aged 18–25 years. Motives reflecting smartphone use to cope with discomfort, obtain rewards, conform to social norms, and for their instrumental values appeared to differentially influence addictive, antisocial, and risky PSU. As suspected based on findings from Study One, there were motives not captured by existing quantitative measures that appeared to be important for PSU (i.e., smartphone use to avoid social awkwardness and to conform to perceived social norms about responding). Thus, the results demonstrated the need for a new measure of smartphone use motives.
To further investigate the role of motives in PSU, a new measure of motives for smartphone use was required that both addressed the heterogeneity in prior measures and included new motives identified in Study Two that were not assessed in existing measures. This measure was developed over Studies Three and Four. First, the Delphi method was used to develop a pool of smartphone use motives items that an international panel of academic experts determined were important for assessing motives for smartphone use. These items were then administered to 680 young adults, and both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were performed. The resulting measure, titled the Motives for Smartphone Use Questionnaire (MSUQ), included seven motives domains, two of which represented the new motives identified in Study Two. The MSUQ had good psychometric properties and was robustly associated with PSU and smartphone usage. Moreover, different motives predicted PSU and smartphone usage, with one of the newly constructed motives domains (social comfort) being the strongest predictor of PSU. This highlighted the utility of the MSUQ, which can be used in future research to better understand the motivational antecedents of PSU among young adults (and other populations, pending future validation studies).
Finally, in Study Five, the MSUQ was used to test indirect effects of psychosocial vulnerabilities drawn from the pathway model (i.e., social anxiety, negative urgency, lack of premeditation, and sensation seeking) on addictive, antisocial, and risky PSU via motives. Path analysis was used; after several non-significant paths were removed and two were added (based on examination of modification indices), the hypothesised model demonstrated good fit. Pass time motives predicted addictive PSU, while social comfort motives predicted antisocial and risky PSU. Specific indirect effects were also tested. Social anxiety and negative urgency had indirect effects on addictive and antisocial PSU via motives. Sensation seeking had an indirect effect on addictive PSU via motives. Taken together, findings suggested that motives operate within the excessive reassurance, impulsive, and extraversion pathways to PSU. However, further research is required to fully understand which motives are most important, particularly for influencing risky PSU.
This thesis, including published works, has made an original contribution to the field by using a systematic review, qualitative analysis via focus groups, and empirical quantitative research to identify smartphone use motives that may be key to influencing addictive, antisocial, and risky PSU. Moreover, findings provided broad support for a motivational model of PSU that builds on the pathway model and can be used to guide future research. Research conducted as part of this thesis also led to the development of a robust measurement model of smartphone use motives, the MSUQ. The MSUQ comprehensively assesses motives considered by an international panel of experts to be key to smartphone use, some of which are unique to smartphone use and not captured by existing measures. Findings from this thesis may inform the development of prevention and intervention strategies for PSU that seek to target and modify a person’s motives for smartphone use. Additionally, findings could be used by clinicians to help build unique case formulations that allow for specific psychological processes to be targeted with evidence-based interventions.

Date of Award	2025
Original language	English
Supervisor	Amanda George (Supervisor) & Debra RICKWOOD (Supervisor)